Bitcoin (BTC) failed to break the $72,000 resistance on Tuesday, as onchain data suggested that BTC was entering the most “challenging” phase of the cycle.
Key takeaways:
Bitcoin price stays range-bound following another rejection at $72,000.
Rising supply in loss suggests the most “psychologically challenging” phase of the bear market is here.
Bitcoin must break resistance at $72,000 for a chance to end the downtrend.
Bitcoin faces the most frustrating phase of the cycle
Bitcoin is entering a period of “elevated uncertainty” where market participants display more hesitation than conviction, according to CryptoQuant analyst MorenoDV_.
“A combination of 3 key onchain metrics suggests that the market may be navigating one of the most psychologically challenging phases of the cycle,” MorenoDV_ said.
Related: Arthur Hayes says he’s waiting to buy Bitcoin until Fed eases policy
These include the Bitcoin bull-bear market cycle indicator, a metric that tracks phases of investor sentiment in the BTC market, which shows a bear market consolidation phase following the aggressive drawdown from cycle highs.
This is “a period that historically tends to frustrate both bulls and bears,” the analyst said.
Bitcoin bull-bear market cycle indicator vs. apparent demand. Source: CryptoQuant
The apparent demand further reinforces this picture. The chart above reveals that the spike in Bitcoin’s apparent demand in mid-February was short-lived, “with demand quickly slipping back into negative territory,” MorenoDV_ said.
The lack of sustained buying pressure indicates that market participants remain cautious and unwilling to aggressively accumulate at current levels.
Moreover, the Long-Term Holder SOPR is now below the key threshold of 1, a sign that even long-term investors are realizing losses.
“Historically, this phase tends to emerge in the later stages of bear markets, when prolonged uncertainty begins to erode even the strongest conviction. ”
Meanwhile, Bitcoin supply in loss is rising again, currently approaching the 40–45% range, up from 22% in mid-January.
Historically, such levels appeared during deep corrective phases, as seen in 2015, 2019, and 2022, reflecting growing market stress and capitulation among sellers.
The chart below shows that macro market bottoms are historically formed when supply in loss rises above 50%.
“Supply in loss is increasing again, indicating rising market stress,” CryptoQuant analyst Woominkyu said, adding:
“If historical patterns repeat, the current level may represent the early phase of a bear market rather than the final bottom.”
Bitcoin supply in loss, %. Source: CryptoQuant
As Cointelegraph reported, analysts forecast Bitcoin extending its bear market into late 2026, with some predictions as low as $30,000.
Bitcoin’s key resistance remains $72,000
Bitcoin has made several unsuccessful attempts to rise above $72,000, a level that has suppressed the price since early March.
“Another rejection at the range high for the time being,” said analyst Daan Crypto Trades in an X post on Tuesday, referring to Bitcoin’s pause below $72,000 on Tuesday, adding:
“Still in the range and markets are in general very indecisive.”
An accompanying chart showed $72,000 was the key level to watch on BTC’s four-hour chart. Breaching this level could attract new buyers if the price breaks out of its range.
Fellow analyst BenCrypz said a clean breakout above $72,000 “could trigger stronger bullish momentum and open the path toward higher levels.”
“However, if this resistance holds again, BTC could rotate back toward the $69K mid-range or even revisit the $66K support zone.”
BTC/USD four-hour chart. Source: BenCrypz
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US Democratic Party Senator Adam Schiff introduced legislation Tuesday that would explicitly bar federally regulated prediction-market platforms from listing contracts tied to war, terrorism, assassination and individual deaths.
The bill, called the DEATH BETS Act, would amend the Commodity Exchange Act to make those contracts prohibited for entities overseen by the US Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC).
In a statement announcing the bill, Schiff said markets that let traders profit from violent events create incentives for the misuse of classified information, threaten national security and encourage violence. He said prediction markets had become a “Wild West” and called for Congress and the CFTC to make clear that such “death bets” are not allowed.
The bill seeks to ban prediction market contracts that involve references to “terrorism, assassination, war, or any similar activity,” or that are related to an “individual’s death.” The bill was referred to the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry for consideration, where Schiff is a member.
DEATH BETS Act. Source: Schiff.senate.gov
US-Israel war with Iran ignites military insider concerns
The legislation comes after renewed scrutiny of event-contract platforms during the recent US and Israeli military confrontation with Iran, when war-related markets drew heavy trading and fresh allegations of insider activity.
Six Polymarket traders netted $1 million by accurately betting on the US strike against Iran.
Related: Suspected insider wallets rack up $1.2M betting on ZachXBT’s Axiom exposé
The six wallets were all created in February and placed all their bets on the contracts predicting the timing of a potential US attack, with several shares purchased only hours before the first reported explosions in Iran’s capital, Tehran.
Source: Lookonchain
On Tuesday, a new wallet spent $32,900 to bet on US forces entering Iran by Saturday, despite the odds continuing to decline, according to blockchain data platform Lookonchain.
Related: Kalshi, Polymarket face trading halt in Nevada after court rulings
In February, Israeli authorities arrested and indicted two people suspected of using secret information about Israel striking Iran for insider trading on Polymarket.
Insider concerns grew in January after a Polymarket account profited $400,000 after it placed a bet on a contract predicting that Venezuelan President Nicholas Maduro would be captured, wagering the funds just hours before US forces captured him.
Magazine: Inside a 30,000 phone bot farm stealing crypto airdrops from real users
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On March 10, Strategy’s Variable Rate Series A Preferred ($STRC) delivered its most significant trading session since launch.
The headline figures are straightforward:
$409 million in daily traded volume — the highest on record
3% 30-day volatility — the lowest since issuance
$99.78 one-month VWAP — the highest sustained trading average to date
At first glance, these appear to be the sort of milestones any new financial instrument might post as it matures. Markets discover a product, liquidity improves, volatility compresses, and price behavior begins to stabilize.
But taken together, the data suggests something more interesting may be happening.
STRC is beginning to behave less like a financial experiment, and more like a capital markets instrument with real institutional liquidity.
For executives watching the evolution of corporate Bitcoin strategies, that distinction matters. The conversation is gradually shifting from whether companies should hold Bitcoin to something far more structural: how capital markets are beginning to organize around it.
STRC occupies an unusual position within Strategy’s capital structure, functioning as connective tissue between two financial ecosystems that rarely overlap comfortably.
On one side sits the traditional income investor. The pension fund, the insurance portfolio, the income-focused allocator that prefers stable instruments, predictable distributions, and securities that behave in a reasonably orderly fashion.
On the other side sits Strategy (MSTR), whose balance sheet is heavily concentrated in Bitcoin, an asset famous for long-term asymmetry and equally famous for short-term volatility.
Reconciling those two realities requires more than simply issuing a preferred share.
STRC is structured as a Variable Rate Series A Perpetual Preferred Stock, designed to trade near a $100 par value while paying a monthly dividend currently yielding roughly 11.5% annually. The dividend rate can be adjusted periodically to maintain demand and keep the security anchored close to par.
In practice, the instrument performs a translation function. It converts the economics of a Bitcoin-centric balance sheet into a structure that traditional fixed-income capital can evaluate without having to embrace Bitcoin’s volatility directly.
Financial markets tend to reward translation layers like this. When two large pools of capital speak different languages, the institutions that build the bridge often end up controlling the flow between them.
The most revealing statistic from the March 10 session is not just the trading volume, but also what that liquidity enabled Strategy to do.
Source: BitcoinQuant.co
Based on available estimates, the day’s trading activity generated approximately $180.4 million in ATM proceeds, capital that can ultimately be deployed into additional Bitcoin purchases. At prevailing market prices, that capital corresponds to roughly 2,554 BTC acquired.
To understand the significance of that figure, it helps to consider Bitcoin’s supply mechanics. Global mining currently produces about 450 BTC per day.
In other words, the capital formation generated through STRC trading activity during a single session represented roughly 567% of the daily newly mined Bitcoin supply.
This highlights a structural asymmetry that sits at the center of Bitcoin’s interaction with capital markets. Bitcoin supply expands on a fixed schedule governed by code. Capital market demand, by contrast, expands according to financial innovation and the willingness of investors to allocate capital into new instruments.
When those two systems meet, the supply side does not adjust. The demand side simply scales.
Volume alone rarely tells the full story of a financial instrument. The more interesting signal often lies in how that volume interacts with volatility.
In STRC’s case, the combination is striking: record trading volume paired with extremely low price volatility. That pairing typically signals a shift in the investor base.
Speculative trading can certainly drive volume, but it rarely compresses volatility. That tends to happen when income-oriented capital begins to participate, the kind of capital that prefers stability, trades less frequently, and anchors securities near fundamental value.
The compression of STRC’s 30-day volatility to roughly 3% while liquidity expands significantly suggests the instrument may be achieving exactly what its structure was designed to do. It is beginning to behave less like a volatile equity derivative and more like a yield product with predictable price behavior.
If that dynamic continues, STRC could represent the early stages of something financial markets have not previously seen at scale: a Bitcoin-linked income security with institutional liquidity.
Viewed through another lens, STRC is beginning to display characteristics that product builders recognize immediately: the early signs of product-market fit.
That phrase is typically associated with software startups, but the underlying concept applies equally well to financial instruments. Product-market fit occurs when a product solves a real demand problem so effectively that adoption begins to accelerate organically. Liquidity deepens. Price behavior stabilizes. And the system begins pulling capital through it rather than relying on constant promotion.
Several signals suggest STRC may be approaching that threshold.
Trading volume is expanding rapidly while volatility continues to compress. The security is holding remarkably close to its intended $100 par value, suggesting the dividend adjustment mechanism is functioning as designed. And perhaps most importantly, the investor base appears to be shifting toward income-focused capital, the kind of capital that tends to stabilize markets rather than amplify their swings.
The most striking evidence of this dynamic came during the March 10 session itself.
The capital raised through STRC trading translated into an estimated 2,554 BTC acquired, equivalent to 567% of the daily global Bitcoin supply mined.
That figure is less about the number itself and more about what it implies. When a financial instrument can channel that level of capital toward a scarce asset in a single session, it suggests the market may be discovering a structure it actually wants to use.
In other words, the product is working.
Financial markets rarely reward clever engineering alone. Structures survive when they satisfy a real investor demand. If STRC continues to attract liquidity while maintaining price stability, it may indicate that Strategy has identified a structure capable of connecting two enormous pools of capital: traditional income investors and a Bitcoin-based corporate balance sheet.
When that kind of alignment occurs, markets tend to scale it quickly.
For CFOs and corporate boards evaluating Bitcoin treasury strategies, the significance of STRC extends beyond the mechanics of a single preferred security.
It offers a glimpse of how Bitcoin may begin to reshape corporate capital structures themselves.
Traditionally, companies finance themselves through a familiar toolkit: common equity for growth investors, debt for credit markets, and preferred securities for income-oriented capital. Each component serves a different class of investor with a different risk appetite.
Bitcoin treasury companies are beginning to experiment with something more integrated.
Instead of financing operations alone, these structures channel different forms of capital toward a shared strategic reserve. Income investors may participate through preferred instruments. Equity investors may seek leveraged upside through common shares. Yet the proceeds from both ultimately flow toward the same underlying asset.
When that dynamic takes hold, Bitcoin ceases to function merely as a balance sheet holding, and becomes the asset around which the capital structure itself is organized.
The March 10 trading session may ultimately be remembered as more than a record day for a single security.
It may mark a moment when Bitcoin began to move from the periphery of corporate finance toward something more structural. A reserve asset capable of supporting entirely new classes of securities.
Financial markets have always evolved through instruments that translate unfamiliar ideas into familiar formats. Exchange-traded funds did it for commodities. Mortgage securities did it for real estate credit. Structured products did it for complex derivatives.
In its own way, STRC is attempting something similar.
It packages the economics of a Bitcoin treasury into a form that traditional capital markets can understand, price, and trade.
Whether this model ultimately scales remains to be seen. Markets tend to test new financial structures thoroughly before granting them permanence. But if liquidity continues to deepen and volatility remains contained, the implications extend well beyond a single preferred security.
What matters most is not the trading milestone itself, but what it represents. Capital markets appear to be discovering new ways to finance Bitcoin accumulation. If that trend holds, it could reshape how institutions access and deploy capital around the finite asset.
Disclaimer: This content was prepared on behalf of Bitcoin For Corporations for informational purposes only. It reflects the author’s own analysis and opinion and should not be relied upon as investment advice. Nothing in this article constitutes an offer, invitation, or solicitation to purchase, sell, or subscribe for any security or financial product.
Strive, Inc. said Wednesday it raised the dividend rate on its preferred equity product while adding more bitcoin and a new credit instrument to its balance sheet, moves the firm said are designed to stabilize its digital credit strategy.
The Dallas-based company increased the dividend rate on its SATA preferred stock by 25 basis points to 12.75% and declared a dividend of $1.0625 per share payable April 15 to shareholders of record on April 1.
At the same time, Strive narrowed its targeted trading range for SATA to $99–$101 from the previous $95–$105 and updated guidance to avoid issuing new shares below $100 through at-the-market or follow-on offerings.
The firm also disclosed additional balance sheet activity, including the purchase of 179 bitcoin since its last filing. That brings Strive’s holdings to roughly 13,311 BTC.
Separately, Strive allocated $50 million to acquire 500,000 shares of Strategy Inc.’s Variable Rate Series A Perpetual Stretch Preferred Stock, trading under the ticker STRC on Nasdaq Composite.
Executives framed the moves as part of a broader effort to strengthen the credit profile of SATA, which the company describes as a “digital credit” product tied to bitcoin-focused capital strategies.
CEO Matthew Cole said the adjustments are intended to maintain a stable trading range for the preferred shares while supporting long-term returns for common shareholders relative to bitcoin performance.
Chief Risk Officer Jeff Walton said the addition of STRC reflects the company’s view that the instrument offers higher yield and liquidity than traditional fixed income, allowing Strive to manage short- and medium-duration capital more efficiently.
As of March 9, Strive held $143.4 million in cash and cash equivalents before the STRC purchase, alongside its bitcoin holdings.
The company said its combined bitcoin, STRC, and cash reserves currently cover more than 19 years of SATA interest payments.
Strive and Strategy get upgraded ratings
This comes as Strategy Inc. disclosed that it spent $1.28 billion to acquire 17,994 bitcoin last week, raising its total holdings to 738,731 BTC worth about $50 billion at current prices.
Against that backdrop, investment bank B. Riley Financial initiated coverage of Strategy and Strive, Inc. with Buy ratings and price targets of $175 and $12, respectively, arguing that the recent decline in bitcoin and related equities has compressed valuations and created a potential entry point for investors.
Analysts pointed to Strategy’s scale and market dominance as the largest corporate bitcoin holder, as well as its ability to raise capital across cycles through a layered structure that includes common equity, convertible notes, and multiple series of perpetual preferred stock.
Meanwhile, Strive was highlighted for its “dual-engine” model combining a roughly 13,132 BTC treasury with an asset management business overseeing about $2.5 billion, alongside a recent all-stock acquisition of Semler Scientific.
Consumers and small businesses receiving payments across the globe will soon benefit from a pioneering new framework rolled out by Swift and a coalition of global banks.
Designed to elevate the cross-border retail payment experience, the initiative promises to deliver next-generation speed, predictability, and affordability to everyday international transactions.
Targeting high-volume remittance corridors
Nasir Ahmed, head of payments scheme at Swift
Slated to go live with an initial group of more than 25 banks by the end of June, the framework targets popular payment corridors including Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, China, Germany, India, Pakistan, Spain, Thailand, the UK, and the US. Notably, five of these initial launch markets currently rank among the top ten countries globally for received remittances.
Moving away from the traditional uncertainties of international money movement, transactions processed under the new scheme will provide users with a guarantee of full-value delivery and end-to-end traceability. Furthermore, the framework ensures upfront certainty of cost and pushes for the fastest available processing speeds, including instant settlement wherever technically possible.
Swift initially announced the development of these collaborative network rules in September 2025 to help the financial industry progress toward the G20’s goals for consumer payments. While 75 per cent of payments over the Swift network currently reach their destination banks in under 10 minutes, the organisation acknowledged that systemic improvements were still required in the final domestic leg to truly smooth out the end-to-end user experience.
Nasir Ahmed, head of payments scheme at Swift, highlighted the community’s collective drive to eliminate global payment friction. Ahmed emphasized that everyone should be able to transact internationally at pace, safe in the knowledge that the full value will arrive with the recipient and that fees will be affordable and fixed from the start. He noted that the global banking community is deeply committed to delivering a transparent, first-class payment experience across all markets and all regulated forms of value.
A dual-track innovation strategy
This retail payments scheme represents just one half of Swift’s broader, dual-track innovation strategy aimed at enabling frictionless transactions across all asset types.
In parallel to the retail framework, Swift is also integrating a blockchain-based shared ledger into its core infrastructure stack. This ledger implementation aims to facilitate 24/7 real-time cross-border payments by allowing for the secure, scalable, and trusted on-chain movement of regulated tokenised assets. Ultimately, this will leverage Swift’s massive existing network, which currently connects 11,500 banks and financial institutions across more than 200 countries and territories.
The new retail framework has already garnered formal support from more than 50 major banks worldwide. The roster includes industry heavyweights such as Absa, Bank of America, Citi, Deutsche Bank, Lloyds Bank, and Standard Chartered.
Lori Schwartz, global head of treasury services at J.P. Morgan Payments, underscored the importance of this united front, noting that when the industry collaborates to build trusted, transparent infrastructure, organisations and consumers around the world ultimately benefit. As the initial rollout progresses through the summer, Swift anticipates that even more payment routes will be activated by the end of the year, further scaling the global reach of these transparent account-to-account transfers
Mastercard has unveiled a new global initiative aimed at bringing crypto into the mainstream of financial services.
The Crypto Partner Program, announced Wednesday, gathers more than 85 companies across the blockchain, fintech, and traditional banking sectors, including Binance, Circle, Gemini, PayPal, Paxos, Ripple, BitGo, and Crypto.com.
The program is designed to explore practical applications for on-chain technology within existing payment infrastructure, focusing on areas such as cross-border transfers, business-to-business payments, and global payouts.
Executives at Mastercard, including Raj Dhamodharan, executive vice president of Digital Asset Blockchain Products & Partnerships, and Sherri Haymond, executive vice president of Digital Commercialization, described the launch as a response to the evolving role of digital assets in financial markets.
They said that digital assets are entering a new phase, noting that blockchain and crypto are increasingly used to solve real-world problems rather than operate purely as parallel systems.
For instance, blockchain tools can enable instant settlement, programmable payments, and round-the-clock cross-border transfers—capabilities that complement existing payment rails rather than replace them.
Mastercard’s collaboration across crypto
The Crypto Partner Program is structured to promote collaboration across the ecosystem. Participants will work directly with Mastercard teams on product development and strategic direction, helping to shape services that integrate the speed and flexibility of on-chain payments with the global infrastructure of card networks.
The program also provides forums for partners to exchange ideas, share expertise, and coordinate on industry standards.
According to Mastercard, the goal is practical execution: translating technical innovation into solutions that are scalable, compliant, and capable of operating across multiple markets.
This initiative builds on years of previous engagement with the crypto sector.
Mastercard has supported crypto-linked payment cards, backed blockchain startups through its Start Path accelerator, and developed services to help banks manage compliance and risk around digital assets.
By creating a structured partnership framework, the company hopes to accelerate adoption of digital assets while maintaining the trust, oversight, and global connectivity that define its core business.
The move comes amid broader efforts by traditional payment networks to integrate digital assets. Visa, for example, has tested settlements using stablecoins and collaborated with blockchain firms to explore tokenized dollar payments.
Banks are similarly experimenting with blockchain-based deposits and payment systems. Mastercard’s approach emphasizes the integration of innovation into the systems consumers and businesses already rely on.
Its network touches banks, merchants, and consumers in over 200 countries, providing a scale and reliability that on-chain solutions alone cannot match.
Mastercard describes the program as “built for innovators, designed for deployment.” By fostering collaboration among crypto-native companies, payment providers, and financial institutions, the initiative aims to align innovation across the industry while supporting responsible growth.
For Dhamodharan and Haymond, the objective is clear: “By bridging on-chain innovation with the framework that powers everyday payments, we’re helping ensure that what’s next works with what already does.”
Synchronizing a new node to the network tip involves several distinct stages:
Peer discovery and chain selection where the node connects to random peers and determines the most-work chain.
Header download when block headers are fetched and connected to form the full header chain.
Block download when the node requests blocks belonging to that chain from multiple peers simultaneously.
Block and transaction validation where each block’s transactions are verified before the next one is processed.
While block validation itself is inherently sequential, each block depends on the state produced by the previous one, much of the surrounding work runs in parallel. Header synchronization, block downloads and script verification can all occur concurrently on different threads. An ideal IBD saturates all subsystems maximally: network threads fetching data, validation threads verifying signatures, and database threads writing the resulting state.
Without continuous performance improvement, cheap nodes might not be able to join the network in the future.
Intro
Bitcoin’s “don’t trust, verify” culture requires that the ledger can be rebuilt by anyone from scratch. After processing all historical transactions every user should arrive at the exact same local state of everyone’s funds as the rest of the network.
This reproducibility is at the heart of Bitcoin’s trust-minimized design, but it comes at a significant cost: after almost 17 years, this ever-growing database forces newcomers to do more work than ever before they can join the Bitcoin network.
When bootstrapping a new node it has to download, verify, and persist every block from genesis to the current chain tip – a resource-intensive synchronization process called Initial Block Download (IBD).
While consumer hardware continues to improve, keeping IBD requirements low remains critical for maintaining decentralization by keeping validation accessible to everyone – from lower-powered devices like Raspberry Pis to high-powered servers.
Benchmarking process
Performance optimization begins with understanding how software components, data patterns, hardware, and network conditions interact to create bottlenecks in performance. This requires extensive experimentation, most of which gets discarded. Beyond the usual balancing act between speed, memory usage, and maintainability, Bitcoin Core developers must choose the lowest-risk/highest-return changes. Valid-but-minor optimizations are often rejected as too risky relative to their benefit.
We have a significant suite of micro-benchmarks to ensure existing functionality doesn’t degrade in performance. These are useful for catching regressions, i.e. performance backslides in individual pieces of code, but aren’t necessarily representative of overall IBD performance.
Contributors proposing optimizations provide reproducers and measurements across different environments: operating systems, compilers, storage types (SSD vs HDD), network speeds, dbcache sizes, node configurations (pruned vs archival), and index combinations. We write single-use benchmarks and use compiler explorers for validating which setup would perform better in that specific scenario (e.g. intra-block duplicate transaction checking with Hash Set vs Sorted Set vs Sorted vector).
We’re also regularly benchmarking the IBD process. This can be done by reindexing the chainstate and optionally the block index from local block files, or doing a full IBD either from local peers (to avoid slow peers affecting timings) or from the wider p2p network itself.
IBD benchmarks often show smaller improvements than micro-benchmarks since network bandwidth or other I/O is often the bottleneck; downloading the blockchain alone takes ~16 hours with average global internet speeds.
For maximum reproducibility -reindex-chainstate is often favored, creating memory and CPU profiles before and after the optimization and validating how the change affects other functionality.
Historical and ongoing improvements
Early Bitcoin Core versions were designed for a much smaller blockchain. The original Satoshi prototype laid the foundations, but without constant innovation from Bitcoin Core developers it would not have been able to handle the network’s unprecedented growth.
Originally the block index stored every historic transaction and whether they were spent, but in 2012, “Ultraprune” (PR #1677) created a dedicated database for tracking unspent transaction outputs, forming the UTXO set, which pre-caches the latest state of all spendable coins, providing a unified view for validation. Combined with a database migration from Berkeley DB to LevelDB validation speeds were significantly improved.
However, this database migration caused the BIP50[1] chain fork when a block with many transaction inputs was accepted by upgraded nodes but rejected by older versions as being too complicated. This highlights how Bitcoin Core development differs from typical software engineering: even pure performance optimizations have the potential to result in unintended chain splits.
The following year (PR #2060) enabled multithreaded signature validation. Around the same time, the specialized cryptographic library libsecp256k1 was created, and was integrated into Bitcoin Core in 2014. Over the following decade, through continuous optimizations, it became more than 8x faster than the same functionality in the general-purpose OpenSSL library.
Headers-first sync (PR #4468, 2014) restructured the IBD process to first download the block header chain with the most accumulated work, then fetch blocks from multiple peers simultaneously. Besides accelerating IBD it also eliminated wasted bandwidth on blocks that would be orphaned as they were not in the main chain.
In 2016 PR #9049 removed what appeared to be a redundant duplicate-input check, introducing a consensus bug that could have allowed supply inflation. Fortunately, it was discovered and patched before exploitation. This incident drove major testing resource investments. Today, with differential fuzzing, broad coverage, and stricter review discipline, Bitcoin Core surfaces and resolves issues far more quickly, with no comparable consensus hazards reported since.[2].
In 2017 -assumevalid (PR #9484) separated general block validity checks from the expensive signature verification, making the latter optional for most of IBD, cutting its time roughly in half. Block structure, proof-of-work, and spending rules remain fully verified: -assumevalid skips signature checks entirely for all blocks up to a certain block height.
In 2022 PR #25325 replaced Bitcoin Core’s ordinary memory allocator with a custom pool-based allocator optimized for the coins cache. By designing specifically for Bitcoin’s allocation patterns, it reduced memory waste and improved cache efficiency, delivering ~21% faster IBD while fitting more coins in the same memory footprint.
While code itself doesn’t rot, the system it operates within constantly evolves. Every 10 minutes Bitcoin’s state changes – usage patterns shift, bottlenecks migrate. Maintenance and optimization aren’t optional; without constant adaptation, Bitcoin would accumulate vulnerabilities faster than a static codebase could defend against, and IBD performance would steadily regress despite advances in hardware.
The increasing size of the UTXO set and growth in average block weight exemplify this evolution. Tasks that were once CPU-bound (like signature verification) are now often Input/Output (IO)-bound due to heavier chainstate access (having to check the UTXO set on disk). This shift has driven new priorities: improving memory caching, reducing LevelDB flush frequency, and parallelizing disk reads to keep modern multi-core CPUs busy.
A look at IBD times for different Bitcoin Core releases.
Recent optimizations
The software designs are based on predicted usage patterns, which inevitably diverge from reality as the network evolves. Bitcoin’s deterministic workload allows us to measure actual behavior and course correct later, ensuring performance keeps pace with the network’s growth.
We’re constantly adjusting defaults to better fit real-world usage patterns. A few examples:
PR #30039 increased LevelDB’s max file size – a single parameter change that delivered ~30% IBD speedup by better matching how the chainstate database (UTXO set) is actually accessed.
PR #31645 doubled the flush batch size, reducing fragmented disk writes during IBD’s most write-intensive phase and speeding up progress saves when IBD is interrupted.
PR #32279 adjusted the internal prevector storage size (used mainly for in-memory script storage). The old pre-segwit threshold prioritized older script templates at the expense of newer ones. By adjusting the capacity to cover modern script sizes, heap allocations are avoided, memory fragmentation is reduced, and script execution benefits from better cache locality.
All small, surgical changes with measurable validation impacts.
Beyond parameter tuning, some changes required rethinking existing designs:
PR #28280 improved how pruned nodes (which discard old blocks to save disk space) handle frequent memory cache flushes. The original design either dumped the entire cache or scanned it to find modified entries. Selectively tracking modified entries enabled over 30% speedup for pruned nodes with maximum dbcache and ~9% improvement with default settings.
PR #31551 introduced read/write batching for block files, reducing the overhead of many small filesystem operations. The 4x-8x speedup in block file access improved not just IBD but other RPCs as well.
PR #31144 optimized the existing optional block file obfuscation (used to make sure data isn’t stored in cleartext on disk) by processing 64-bit chunks instead of byte-by-byte operations, delivering another IBD speedup. With obfuscation being essentially free users no longer need to choose between safe storage and performance.
Other minor caching optimizations (such as PR #32487) enabled adding additional safety checks that were deemed too expensive before (PR #32638).
Similarly, we can now flush the cache more frequently to disk (PR #30611), ensuring nodes never lose more than one hour of validation work in case of crashes. The modest overhead was acceptable because earlier optimizations had already made IBD significantly faster.
PR #32043 currently serves as a tracker for IBD-related performance improvements. It groups a dozen ongoing efforts, from disk and cache tuning to concurrency enhancements, and provides a framework for measuring how each change affects real-world performance. This approach encourages contributors to present not only code but also reproducible benchmarks, profiling data, and cross-hardware comparisons.
Future optimization suggestions
PR #31132 parallelizes transaction input fetching during block validation. Currently, each input is fetched from the UTXO set sequentially – cache misses require disk round trips, creating an IO bottleneck. The PR introduces parallel fetching across multiple worker threads, achieving up to ~30% faster -reindex-chainstate (~10 hours on a Raspberry Pi 5 with 450MB dbcache). As a side effect, this narrows the performance gap between small and large -dbcache values, potentially allowing nodes with modest memory to sync nearly as fast as high-memory configurations.
Besides IBD, PR #26966 parallelizes block filter and transaction index construction using configurable worker threads.
Keeping the persisted UTXO set compact is critical for node accessibility. PR #33817 experiments with reducing it slightly by removing an optional LevelDB feature that might not be needed for Bitcoin’s specific use case.
SwiftSync[3] is an experimental approach leveraging our hindsight about historical blocks. Knowing the actual outcome, we can categorize every encountered coin by its final state at the target height: those still unspent (which we store) and those spent by that height (which we can ignore, merely verifying they appear in matching create/spend pairs anywhere). Pre-generated hints encode this classification, allowing nodes to skip UTXO operations for short-lived coins entirely.
Bitcoin Is Open To Anyone
Beyond synthetic benchmarks, a recent experiment[4] ran the SwiftSync prototype on an underclocked Raspberry Pi 5 powered by a battery pack over WiFi, completing -reindex-chainstate of 888,888 blocks in 3h 14m. Measurements with equivalent configurations show a 250% full validation speedup[5] across recent Bitcoin Core versions.
Years of accumulated work translate to genuine impact: fully validating nearly a million blocks can now be done in less than a day on cheap hardware, maintaining accessibility despite continuous blockchain growth.
Self-sovereignty is more accessible than ever.
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Wells Fargo (WFC), one of the largest U.S. banks overseeing $1.7 trillion in assets, has filed a trademark application for a new digital asset-focused platform branded as WFUSD, signaling that the bank is pushing deeper into crypto and blockchain.
According to a Tuesday filing for the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), WFUSD would offer services such as “cryptocurrency payments processing,” “execute trades of digital assets” and “services featuring software for tokenization of assets,” among others.
The move mirrors global bank JPMorgan’s similar, digital asset-related trademark filing last year for “JPMD.” That foreshadowed the launch a permissioned USD deposit token under the same name on Base, the layer-2 network built on Ethereum.
In Wells Fargo’s case, the “WFUSD” trademark may hint for the offering being a tokenized deposit or stablecoin.
The bank did not return requests for a comment by press time.
The bank’s filing come as traditional financial institutions and global banks increasingly embrace digital assets, exploring tokenized assets and stablecoins. Last May, the Wall Street Journal reported that several U.S. banks including Wells Fargo, JPMorgan Chase (JPM), Bank of America (BAC) and Citigroup (C) held early-stage discussions to jointly launch a stablecoin.
Notably, Wells Fargo unveiled plans in 2019 to pilot an internal settlement service called Wells Fargo Digital Cash, running on the bank’s own distributed ledger technology (DLT) platform.
Socotra today announced the general availability of Socotra Assistant, a powerful AI underwriting capability built directly into Socotra Operations Workbench. The production-ready AI assistant dramatically improves underwriter productivity and accuracy with intelligent document import, risk assessment insights, and automated summaries—all with human governance and full data security.
Socotra Assistant supports all insurance products and geographies. It is fully documented, supported by video walkthroughs, and can be set up in one week without any coding.
“Insurers see high value in AI, but they’re tired of demos and bolt-ons that don’t scale in production,” said Dan Woods, CEO of Socotra. “Socotra is now the only insurance core with built-in AI that is safe, quickly-configured, continually improving, product-agnostic, and available to all customers. Socotra AI is mature AI.”
Improve Underwriter Productivity with End-to-End Workflows
Because Socotra Assistant is embedded directly within Socotra Operations Workbench, it can analyze and act on live policy and billing data in real time. Socotra Policy was built for AI connectivity from the start, with open APIs, continuous data access, and a flexible insurance data model. That modern architecture enables Socotra Assistant to support insurers through the entire underwriting process. Underwriters can use Socotra Assistant to:
Extract data from emails, documents, tables, ACORD forms, PDFs, and even handwritten notes
Resolve missing or invalid data by interacting with Socotra Assistant in chat mode
Analyze applications against risk assessment criteria, find issues, and draft resolutions
Quickly view Socotra Assistant’s reasoning and information sources
Automatically generate structured underwriting summaries and documentation with a permanent audit trail
Built for Governance, Scale, and Control
Socotra Assistant delivers governance and flexibility within regulated insurance environments through the following design principles:
Human always in the loop: Socotra Assistant only makes changes or takes actions with explicit human approval.
Explainable recommendations: Every finding includes clear reasoning and links to the data and sources used.
Audit-ready execution: AI actions are permanently logged and viewable in underwriting records.
Insurer-specific learning: Socotra Assistant learns each insurer’s specific risk assessment criteria and product workflows—without learning their data.
Further Information
Insurers interested in deploying AI within their core systems can explore Socotra Assistant’s video walkthrough, documentation, and enablement guide. Attending Insurtech Insights Europe? Get a demo of Socotra Assistant at Booth B52 and join us for Insurtech on Tap.
ETHEREUM FOUNDATION STARTS EXPERIMENTING WITH DVT-LITE TECH: The Ethereum Foundation is testing a method for running validators that could make it significantly easier for institutions holding large amounts of ether to set up staking infrastructure, widening the pool of participants and creating a more decentralized network. In a post on X, blockchain co-founder Vitalik Buterin said the foundation is using a simplified version of distributed validator technology, or “DVT-lite,” to stake 72,000 ETH. The experiment aims to make running validators across multiple machines less complicated. Buterin said the goal is to reduce the process to something close to a one-click setup, where operators choose which computers will run validator nodes, launch the software and enter the same key on each machine. The system would then automatically connect the nodes and begin staking. “My hope for this project is that we can make it maximally easy and one-click to do distributed staking for institutions,” Buterin wrote. Running Ethereum validators today typically means operating a single node that holds the key used to sign blocks and participate in the network. If that machine fails or goes offline, the validator can stop working and may be penalized. Distributed validator technology (DVT) changes that by allowing multiple independent machines to collectively act as a single validator. Instead of relying on one key and one computer, several nodes work together, and only a handful of them sign for the validator to function. That means the validator can keep operating even if some machines go down. But existing DVT systems can be complicated to deploy because operators must coordinate networking, keys and communication between nodes. Buterin has previously argued that complexity is one reason large staking providers have come to dominate the ecosystem. The “DVT-lite” setup aims to automate much of that process, making it easier for institutions to run distributed validators with minimal infrastructure expertise.— Margaux Nijkerk Read more.
NVIDIA SHARES AI CREATES JOBS IN RARE BLOG: The AI jobs debate got its sharpest rebuttal yet, from the person selling the hardware. Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang published a rare standalone essay laying out what he calls the “five-layer cake” of AI infrastructure: energy at the base, then chips, then physical infrastructure, then models, then applications. It positioned AI not as a software product or a chatbot but as an industrial buildout on the scale of electrification, one that requires trillions of dollars in physical construction and a massive workforce of electricians, plumbers, pipefitters, steelworkers, and network technicians. “These are skilled, well-paid jobs, and they are in short supply. You do not need a PhD in computer science to participate in this transformation,” he said. Huang’s argument for why the buildout needs to be so large starts with a fundamental shift in how computing works. Traditional software retrieves stored instructions, while AI generates new outputs in real time, with every response created fresh based on the context provided. It isn’t looking up an answer, but instead, reasoning through one on demand. Because intelligence is produced in real time, the entire computing stack beneath it has to be reinvented, which is why AI requires purpose-built infrastructure from the energy layer up rather than running on existing data centers. The timing is pointed. The essay arrives after weeks of mounting anxiety about AI’s impact on employment, from Block Inc.’s mass layoffs to Anthropic CEO Dario Amodei’s comments about job displacement. Tech stocks had been selling off on the combination of those fears since early this year. — Shaurya Malwa Read more.
AAVE SEES RARE $27M IN LIQUIDATIONS DUE TO PRICE GLITCH: About $27 million was liquidated on the decentralized lending platform Aave over the last 24 hours, in what some market participants say may have been caused by a temporary pricing issue involving the token wstETH. Blockchain data flagged by risk-management firm Chaos Labs shows a spike in liquidations in the past 24 hours. Some observers believe the event may have been linked to a price update in a risk-oracle system that Aave uses to determine the value of collateral. Oracles are services that feed price data from the outside world into blockchain applications. Lending protocols like Aave rely on them to decide when a borrower’s collateral is no longer sufficient to back their loan — at which point the position can be liquidated. While such scenarios are rare, most recently, a price-oracle setup misconfigured by DeFi lender Moonwell briefly valued Coinbase Wrapped ETH (cbETH) at about $1 instead of roughly $2,200, leaving the protocol with nearly $1.8 million in bad debt. In Aave’s case, some say the issue may have involved wstETH, a token issued by Lido that represents staked ether. Because it accrues staking rewards over time, one wstETH is typically worth slightly more than one ETH. According to a post from LTV Protocol on X, at the time of the liquidations, Aave’s risk-oracle appeared to value wstETH at roughly 1.19 ETH, while the broader market valued it closer to 1.23 ETH. Volume remained relatively low for wstETH trading pairs, with just $10 million being traded over the past 24 hours, so it is unlikely any astute traders capitalized on the pricing mismatch before it snapped back. Stani Kulechov, the founder and CEO of Aave Labs, said in a post on X that there “was no impact to the Aave Protocol.” According to Chaos Labs, the incident was caused by a mismatch between stale parameters stored in a smart contract, including a reference exchange rate and its associated timestamp. Because those values were not updated in sync, the CAPO system temporarily calculated a maximum allowed exchange rate that was lower than the real market value of wstETH. — Margaux Nijkerk Read more.
PUDGY PENGUINS LAUNCHES ITS WEB3 GAME: Pudgy Penguins shipped its flagship game to the general public, and the most notable thing about it is that you wouldn’t know it had anything to do with crypto unless someone told you. Pudgy World, the browser-based game first announced at Art Basel in late 2023, went live with 12 unique towns across a world called The Berg, narrative quests where players help a penguin named Pengu find someone named Polly, and a set of mini-games. CoinDesk played a 10-minute session and came away with a simple takeaway. It’s smooth, responsive, intuitive, and clearly not built with a crypto-first user in mind. “We created custom world-building tools using open-source web technology, giving us a lightweight editor built for speed and rapid iteration,” co-founder @chefgoyardi said in an X post. “Our asset pipeline lets artists work in Maya, Cinema4D, or Blender while custom Houdini scripts automatically convert everything into a web-optimized format. Creative freedom without compromise.” “We engineered physics specifically for the browser. Snappy movement, parkour, fluid navigation, and high frame rates even on lower-end devices,” they added.The game could be pure Club Penguin nostalgia for some users. The game was Disney’s browser-based virtual world that ran from 2005 to 2017 and peaked at over 200 million registered users, mostly kids who customized penguin avatars and played mini-games. It remains the template for what a mass-market Penguin game looks like, and the comparison Pudgy World could be measured against in the broader audience. The NFT gaming space has spent years producing products that feel like wallets with gameplay bolted on. Pudgy World goes the other direction, building something that works as a game first and connects to the token economy second. — Shaurya Malwa Read more.
In Other News
Mastercard has launched a new Crypto Partner Program that brings together more than 85 companies from across the digital asset and payments industries, an effort to more directly link blockchain technology with the infrastructure that underpins global commerce. The program includes crypto exchanges, blockchain developers, fintech firms and banks such as Binance, Circle, Ripple, Gemini, PayPal and Paxos, the company told CoinDesk in a statement. Participants will work with Mastercard to explore how blockchain-based systems can connect with traditional payment rails used by banks, merchants and consumers around the world. Mastercard said the initiative focuses on practical use cases where digital assets are already gaining traction, including cross-border transfers, business-to-business payments and global payouts. For payment companies like Mastercard, the challenge is less about replacing existing systems and more about connecting new ones to the networks that already handle global commerce. Mastercard’s network links banks, merchants and consumers in more than 200 countries and territories. The company argues that blockchain-based payments will only scale widely if they can plug into that kind of global infrastructure.The Crypto Partner Program is designed to create that bridge. Companies in the program will work with Mastercard teams to help shape products that combine on-chain tools — such as programmable payments or tokenized assets — with established payment rails. — Helene Braun Read more.
Foundry Digital, one of the largest Bitcoin mining pools by hashrate, said it plans to introduce a zcash (ZEC) mining pool by next month, expanding beyond BTC and bringing a large institutional operator into the privacy-focused network. With the new pool, Foundry aims to offer zcash miners a U.S.-based platform designed around compliance checks, reporting standards and operational controls often required by public companies and large firms. The move addresses what Foundry describes as a gap in Zcash infrastructure. While the cryptocurrency has existed for nearly a decade, much of its mining ecosystem still consists of smaller global pools that often operate outside formal compliance frameworks. “Zcash has matured into an institutional-grade asset, but the mining infrastructure supporting it hasn’t kept pace,” Foundry CEO Mike Colyer said in a statement shared with CoinDesk. The expansion comes as privacy-focused cryptocurrencies regain attention across the market as new crypto tax reporting rules, with the threat of asset seizure, kicked in across the European Union at the turn of the year and as onchain analysis keeps developing, leading to growing demand for financial anonymity. — Francisco Rodrigues Read more.
Regulatory and Policy
Binance filed a defamation lawsuit against Dow Jones, the publisher of The Wall Street Journal, on the same day the newspaper published a report claiming the U.S. Justice Department is investigating whether Iran used the world’s largest crypto exchange to move funds in violation of American sanctions. In the complaint filed in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, the company said the newspaper published “false and defamatory statements” about its compliance practices and handling of Iran-linked transactions in an article published on Feb. 23. In that article, the Journal said Binance fired staff who flagged funds moving through the exchange to sanctioned entities, allegations Binance rejected. The lawsuit says Binance did not fire employees for raising compliance concerns. Staff departures stemmed from alleged breaches of internal data protection policies rather than retaliation, it said.”Binance categorically did not dismantle any compliance investigation,” a spokesperson for the exchange told CoinDesk. “The WSJ continues to report the same falsities. As a result, we have filed a lawsuit against the Wall Street Journal for defamation.” — Francisco Rodrigues Read more.
Sen. Adam Schiff (D-CA) has introduced proposed legislation that would ban prediction market contracts tied to terrorism, war, assassination, and death, directly challenging market regulator CFTC’s shift toward looser regulation of event trading. The bill, dubbed the DEATH BETS Act, would strip the agency of discretion over whether to permit such contracts and write explicit prohibitions into law, putting Schiff on a collision course with CFTC Chair Mike Selig’s deregulatory agenda. Schiff, a member of the Senate Agriculture Committee that oversees the CFTC, is positioned to press the issue legislatively as the agency’s new rule-making takes shape. Under the Commodity Exchange Act, the CFTC already has authority to block contracts tied to war, terrorism, or assassination if it determines they are contrary to the public interest. But enforcement hinges on the regulator’s judgment, meaning the scope of protection shifts with agency leadership. Schiff’s bill would eliminate that flexibility. — Sam Reynolds Read more.
Calendar
Mar. 24-26, 2026: Digital Asset Summit, New York City
Mar. 30-Apr. 2, 2026: EthCC, Cannes
Apr.15-16, 2026: Paris Blockchain Week, Paris
Apr. 29-30, 2026: Token2049, Dubai
May 5-7, 2026: Consensus, Miami
Sept. 29-Oct.1, 2026: Korea Blockchain Week, Seoul